Buddhism

Budhist sites in india

2008-01-11T08:01:00.000-08:00

There are four principal Buddhist pilgrimage sites where most of the buddhist temples and shrines are located. The most important of these are located primarily in the Ganges Valley of India.

Dharamsala

Location:	Himachal Pradesh
Highlights:	It is the seat of His Holiness, the 14th Dalai Lama

The town of Dharamsala is situated in Himachal Pradesh, on the high slopes in the upper reaches of Kangra Valley. With the Dhauladhar Mountains serving as its backdrop, the town presents a picturesque sight. Dharamsala is divided into two parts, the Upper Dharamsala and the Lower Dharamsala, differing by approximately 1000 m in altitude. The town serves as the headquarters of the Tibetan government in exile. Dharamshala is also the seat of His Holiness, The 14th Dalai Lama in India.

It houses a large settlement of Tibetan refugee. Monks in their robes and old Tibetans walking with rosaries in their hands or turning the prayer wheels is a common sight here. There are a number of monasteries and temples in Dharamsala, which serves as the major attractions for the tourists coming here. There are also several institutes here, set up to conserve the art, culture and traditions of Tibet.

Tourist Attractions of Dharamsala

Namgyal Monastery
The personal monastery of The Dalai Lama, Namgyal is situated in Upper Dharamsala. It houses huge stucco statues of the Buddha, Avalokitesvara and Padmasambhava. The monastery also consists of an institute for learning, where futures Lamas are provided with higher Tibet studies.

Gangchen Kyishong
The offices of the Tibetan government-in-exile and the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives are located here.

Monastery of Nechung Oracle
The monastery of Nechung Oracle is situated within the complex of Gangchen Kyishong. The official oracle of The Dalai Lama sits here.

Men-Tse-Khang
It is the center for Tibetan Medicine, located very near to Nechung.

Norbulingka Monastery
The beautiful monastery of Norbulingka boasts of a rich collection of art, paintings, handicrafts and thankas.

Rewalsar
Rewalsar lies very near to Dharamshala. Here, you can visit the cave temple of the great Indian Tantrik Guru Padmasambhava.

How to Reach Dharamsala

By Air
The nearest Airport is at Gaggla, approxiamtely 13 km away from the town.

By Rail
The nearest railway station is that of Pathankot, approxiamtely 85 km away.

By Road
There are regular bus services from Manali, Delhi and Shimla to Dharamsala.

Lumbini

Lumbini is the birthplace of Lord Buddha and located near the Nepal-India border, to the north of Gorakpur.

Just before His birth, Bodhisattva was the lord of Tushita deva realm. There He had resolved to be reborn for the last time and show the attainment of enlightenment to the world. He had made five investigations and determined that this southern continent, where men lived for one hundred years, was the most suitable place and. Since the royal caste was the most respected at that point of time and the lineages of King Suddhodana and his Queen Mayadevi were pure, He chose to be born as their son, a prince of the Shakya dynasty. After placing crowning His successor Maitreya, Bodhisattva descended from Tushita to the world of man.

The night He was to be conceived, Queen Mayadevi dreamt of a great white elephant entering her womb. The earth trembled six times. It is said that just like all the other bodhisattvas, he remained sitting cross-legged for the whole time in the womb. Furthermore, like all the other Buddhas, he was born under a tree in the forest, while His mother remained standing.

At the appointed time, Queen Mayadevi was visiting the Lumbini Garden, approximately ten miles from the Shakya city of Kapilavastu. Emerging from a bath with her face to the east, she leant her right arm on a sala tree. Bodhisattva was then born from her right side and immediately took seven steps, from which lotus flowers sprang up - in each of the four directions. Facing each direction, He proclaimed with a lion's roar, "I am the first, the best of all beings, this is my last birth''. He looked down to predict the defeat of Mara and the benefiting of beings in the lower realms, through the power of His teachings. He then looked up to indicate that the entire world would respect and appreciate his deeds.

Lord Brahma and Lord Indra then received him and bathed him, along with the four guardian protectors. At the same time, two nagas, Nanda and Upananda, caused water to cascade over him. Later, a well was found to have formed there, from which monks continued to draw drinking water, even in Fa Hien's time. The young prince was then wrapped in fine muslin and carried with great rejoicing to the king's palace in Kapilavastu.

Many auspicious signs accompanied Bodhisattva's birth. Many individuals, who would play a major role in his life, are said to have been born on the same day: these included Yasodhara, his future wife; Chandaka, the groom who would later help him leave the palace; Kanthaka, the horse that would bear him; the future kings Bimbisara of Magadha; Prasenajit of Koshala and his protector Vajrapani. The Bodhi tree is also said to have come up on the day of Buddha's birth.

When Ashoka visited Lumbini, two centuries later, his advisor, sage Upagata, described all these events to him, pointing out their sites. Ashoka made many offerings here, built an elaborate stupa and erected a pillar surmounted by a horse capital. By the time Heun Tsang saw it, lightning had already destroyed the pillar. Nevertheless, even till the end of the last century, the inscription on the ruin was sufficiently legible to clearly identify the site as Lumbini.

Prince Siddhartha spent the first twenty-nine years of his life in Kapilavastu. There, he performed three more of the twelve principal deeds of a Buddha. Surpassing all the Shakya youths and even his teachers in all fields of learning, skill and sport, he showed that he had already mastered all the worldly arts.

One day, while still a child, he was left unattended beneath a tree, as his father performed the ceremonial first ploughing of the season. He sat and engaged in his first meditation, attaining such a degree of absorption that five sages going overhead were brought to a standstill by the sheer power of it.

Later, he got married to Yasodhara and experienced a life of pleasure. However, despite King Suddhodana's efforts to protect him from the unpleasant realities of life, one day while riding in his chariot through Kapilavastu, he happened to see a man feeble with age, another struck down with sickness and a corpse. He immediately realized the suffering nature of men's lives. Then he saw a monk of holy countenance and recognized the path he would be taking in his life.

It is said that a Buddha renounces the world only after seeing these four signs and after a son has been born to him. Seven days before Siddhartha was to be crowned as his father's heir, a son, Rahula, was born to Yasodhara. Without further delay, Siddhartha told his father of his resolve to leave the transient luxury of worldly life and live as an ascetic, to discover true happiness and aw way to end of misery.

Suddhodana was against this decision. Therefore, riding the horse Kanthaka and accompanied by the groom Chandaka, Prince Siddhartha left Kapilavastu. After covering some distance, he got down from the horse and performed the great renunciation. He cut off his hair and donned the robes of an ascetic. Then, he sent Chandaka back to the palace with his jewels and horse, and took to the life of an ascetic.

Some years later, after attaining enlightenment, Buddha returned briefly to Kapilavastu at His father's invitation. Lord Buddha and His followers were welcomed by the king and his people, who later listened to His teachings with great reverence. Five hundred Shakya youths became monks at this time, including Rahula, Buddha's own son; Nanda, His half brother and Upali, the barber, who later became one of Buddha's most important disciples.

The splendor of Kapilavastu did not last for long, for the rival king Vaidraka destroyed the city and most of the Shakya clan, during Buddha's lifetime only. When the Chinese pilgrims visited the area, they found nothing but ruins and desolation and merely a handful of people and monks dwelling there. However, all the sites of the events mentioned in the early scriptures were pointed out to them. Several of these were still marked by stupas. After this, the area got lost in jungle and till early 21st century, was accessible only by elephant.

Presently, only Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, has been identified with certainty. Kapilavastu is still tentatively located. Till date, these sites are still being explored and some ruins have been unearthed. One can see the remains of Ashoka's pillar as well as a shrine, of indeterminate age, dedicated to Queen Mayadevi. A Nepalese Buddhist temple was built in 1956 and a Tibetan monastery of the Sakya order was completed in 1975. The monastery, along with a beautiful and elaborate shrine, is well illustrated by the traditional murals. Many young monks are studying here and practicing Buddha's teachings. Thus, they are performing two pious acts, aiding the revival of Lumbini as a place of Buddhist practice and preserving the great traditions lost in Tibet.

The Nepalese temple, which is cared for by a monk of the Theravada tradition, also has rest houses within its grounds, provided by Buddhists from Japan and the former U.N. General Secretary, U Thant. In cooperation with the Nepalese Government, UNESCO is also helping to improve and develop this pilgrimage.

Bodhgaya

Bodhisattva, having renounced the luxurious life of Prince Siddhartha, became Gautama, the ascetic. After leaving his home, he started walking in the southeastern direction from Kapilavastu and came to Vaishali. There, he listened briefly to the teaching of Arada Kalapa, an aberrant samkhya, but left dissatisfied. Crossing the river Ganges, he once again entered the kingdom of Magadha and came to Rajgir, its capital, where he listened to the yogic teachings of Rudraka. Again dissatisfied, he left the place, followed by five ascetics. Along with them, he came to the village of Uravilva, situated on the banks of the Nairanjana River, close to the place now known as Bodhgaya. There, they engaged in long, austere practices. For the first two years, Gautama ate only one grain of rice a day and for the next four years, he ate nothing at all. Despite almost full degeneration of his body, he remained sitting in continual meditation.

Six years after his initial renunciation, he realized that extreme mortification does not lead to liberation. He arose and broke the austerities. The five ascetics got upset and left for Benares.

As his former garments had perished, he took a yellow shroud from the corpse of a servant girl awaiting cremation nearby. To help him wash it, Indra Deva struck the ground to form a pond. A local Brahmin's daughter, Sujata, approached him and offered him a golden bowl filled with rice, prepared in the essence of the milk of one thousand cows. Renewed, he bathed and then walked to a nearby cave to continue his meditation. However, the earth shook and the voices of the earlier Buddhas resounded in the air, telling him that this was not the place of his enlightenment. They advised him to proceed to the nearby Bodhi tree. The sites, where these events took place, were seen by the Chinese pilgrims in the fifth and seventh centuries. The records mention that stupas had been constructed at each of the sites. However, none of these exist today.

As Buddha walked to the Bodhi tree, Svastika, a graincutter, gave him a bundle of kusha grass. A flock of birds flew around him three times. When he entered the area around the tree, the earth shook. He made a seat from the kusha grass for himself, on the eastern side of the tree and after seven circumambulations sat down facing east. He made the great resolve of not rising again, till enlightenment had been attained, even if his skin, bones and flesh crumble away. Sending forth a beam of light from the center of his eyebrows, he invoked Mara, who came to challenge him. Mara first dispatched his horrible armies and then his enticing daughters, but Buddha remained unmoved and defeated him, calling upon the earth and her goddess as his witness. He continued in profound meditation for three nights and finally realized the Supreme Enlightenment at dawn. The air filled with flowers and light and the earth trembled seven times.

For seven days, Buddha continued to meditate beneath the tree, without moving from his seat and for the next six weeks, He remained in the vicinity. During the second week he paced, lost in thoughts, with lotus flowers springing from his footsteps. He pondered whether or not to teach. The chankramanar jewel walk later represented this event. The walk consists of a low platform adorned with eighteen lotuses, which now runs close to and parallel to the north side of the Mahabodhi Temple. For another week after the walk, He sat under the Bodhi tree. The Animeshalochana Stupa, situated to the north of the Chankramanar, later marked this spot. Brahma and Indra offered a hall made of the seven precious elements, where Buddha sat for a week, radiating lights of five colors from his body to illuminate the Bodhi tree. Huen Tsang described this site as being to the west of the tree and remarked that with time the precious elements changed to stone. Today, Ratnaghara stands identified by some as a roofless shrine to the north of Chankramanar.

During a week of unusually inclement weather, the Naga king, Muchalinda wrapped his body seven times around the meditating Buddha, protecting him from the rain, wind and insects. Huen Tsang saw a small temple next to the tank, believed to be the Naga's abode. He described it as lying to the southeast of the Bodhi tree. Presently, it is identified as the dry pond in Mucherim village near Bodhgaya.

While Buddha was meditating beneath the Ajapala nigrodha tree, Lord Brahma came and requested him to teach the Dharma. Huen Tsang saw this tree, along with a small temple and stupa beside it, at the southeast corner of the Bodhi tree enclosure. It is thought that the site is now within the Mahanta's graveyard, near the present eastern gate.

Buddha spent the seventh week seated beneath the Tarayana tree. According to the Huen Tsang, the tree lies to the southeast of the Bodhi tree enclosure, near the place where the bodhisattva earlier had bathed and eaten Sujata's offering. All these places were marked with stupas at that point of time. It was here that two passing merchants, Trapusha and Bhallika, offered Buddha food for the first time, since his enlightenment. Seeing that he needed a vessel to receive it, each of the four guardians of the directions offered precious bowls. But, He accepted only a stone bowl from each one of them. He pressed the four bowls together to form one and when Fa Hien saw it in Peshawar, four rims could be seen in the one.

After spending forty-nine days in meditation, close to the seat of enlightenment, Buddha left Bodhgaya on foot to meet the five ascetics at Benares, where He was going to turn the first wheel of Dharma. After accomplishing this task, he returned briefly to Uruvela and introduced the three brothers, namely Uruvela, Gaya and Nadi Kasyapa, to his teachings. They, along with a thousand followers of their own, became monks and accompanied Shakyamuni to Rajgir.

Just like Shakyamuni, all other Buddhas who show enlightenment to this world eat a meal of milk rice, sit upon a carpet of grass at Vajrasana, engage in meditation, defeat Mara and his forces and attain supreme enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree (although the species of tree differs with each Buddha). The present Bodhi tree is a descendant of the original, as the tree was destroyed deliberately on at least three occasions. King Ashoka, initially hostile to Buddhism, ordered it to be cut down and burned on the spot. But, when the tree sprang up anew from the flames, his attitude changed. Deep regretting his destruction, Ashoka lavished so much personal care and attention on the new tree that his queen became jealous and secretly had it destroyed once more. Again Ashoka revived it and built a protective enclosing wall, as had previously been done by King Prasenajit of Koshala, during the Buddha's lifetime. Nagarjuna is said to have built an enclosure later, to protect the tree from being damaged by elephants. With time, this became less effective. So, he placed a statue of Mahakala upon each pillar.

Huen Tsang gave a record of the third destruction of the tree. He reported seeing remains of these walls and states that in the sixth century, a Saivite king of Bengal, Shasanka, destroyed the tree. However, even though he dug deep into its roots, he was unable to unearth it completely. Purvavarma, of Magadha Empire, revived it later. He poured milk of one thousand cows upon it, leading to the growth of tree to a height of ten feet, in a single night.

The origin of the Mahabodhi Temple, which adorns the site today, is shrouded in obscurity. Various legends hold that Ashoka erected a diamond throne shrine, basically a canopy supported by four pillars, over a stone representation of Vajrasana. When General Cunningham was restoring the floor of the temple, he found traces that he took to be the remains of the shrine. It is his opinion that the temple may have been built between the fifth century and seventh century. Others propose that because of its resemblance to similar structures found in Ghandhara and Nalanda as well as the other archaeological evidence, it could have been founded as early as the second century AD. Nagarjuna is reputed to have built the original stupa upon the roof. However, from the records of Huen Tsang, we can be certain that the temple existed before the seventh century.

Records of the builder are not clear. Some legends go that he was a Brahmin, who acted on the advice of Shiva. The statue in the main shrine of the temple, famous for its likeness to Shakyamuni, is said to have been the work of Maitreya in the appearance of a Brahmin artisan.

Monastic tradition seems to have been strong in Bodhgaya. Fa Hien mentions three monasteries and Huen Tsang describes particularly the magnificent Mahabodhi Sangharama, founded in the early fourth century by a king of Ceylon. Both pilgrims make special remark of the strict observance of the Vinaya by the monks residing there. Some accounts tell that the great master Atisha, who later emphasized pure practice of the Vinaya, received ordination in Bodhgaya.

Like everywhere else, neglect and desolation followed the Muslim invasion of northern India. However, extensive repairs and restoration of the temple and environs in the fourteenth century by the Burmese and their further attempts in the early nineteenth century are recorded. In the late sixteenth century, a wandering sanyasi (ascetic) settled in Bodhgaya and founded the establishment now known as the math of the Mahanta. In 1891, Anagarika Dharmapala, inspired by appeals in the press by Sir Edwin Arnold, began the Mahabodhi Society and sought to restore the site as a Buddhist shrine. However, his efforts were hindered by bureaucracy. The British Government of India decided that the temple and its surroundings were the property of the Saivite Mahanta. Nearly sixty years of judicial wrangling followed, after which the Mahabodhi Temple was legally recognized as belonging to Buddhists.

Since the inception of the Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee and the beginning of its active administration in 1953, vast improvements have been made to both the temple and its grounds. Existing structures have been repaired and new stupas are being erected. With the reintroduction of gilded images in the niches of the Mahabodhi Temple, it began to regain some of its lost splendor. The establishment of beautiful temples and monasteries, in the surrounding district, by the people of Tibet, Japan, China, Thailand, Burma, etc has brought to Bodhgaya, the varied traditions of Buddhist practice that have evolved in those lands. By contrast, the headless, mutilated statues in the local museum present a disturbing reminder of past destruction.

Pilgrims abound in Bodhgaya. In the recent years, thousands have had the fortune to listen to the Dharma there. Many Buddhist masters are again traveling to Bodhgaya to turn the wheel of Dharma. For example, over 100,000 devotees attended the Kalachakra empowerment given by His Holiness, The Dalai Lama, in the year 1974. The Tibetan monastery now offers a two-month meditation course every year, for the international Buddhist community. It also provides meditation courses. Occasionally, the teachings are given in the Burmese, Thai, Japanese and other temples.

Sarnath

All the thousand Buddhas of this aeon, after demonstrating the attainment of enlightenment at Vajrasana, proceed to Sarnath to give the first turning of the Wheel of Dharma. Similarly, Shakyamuni also walked from Bodhgaya to Sarnath, to meet the five ascetics who had left him earlier. Coming to the Ganges, he crossed it in one step. It was here that Emperor Ashoka later made Pataliputra his capital city. He entered Benares early morning, made his alms round, bathed, ate his meal and, leaving by the east gate of the city, walked northwards to Rishipatana Mrigadava, the Rishi's Deer Park.

There are many legends about the origin of this name. Fa Hien says that the Rishi was a Pratyeka Buddha who dwelled there. On hearing that the son of King Suddhodana was about to become a supreme Buddha, He entered nirvana. Others mention 500 Pratyeka Buddhas. Heun Tsang mentioned a stupa marking the site of their nirvana.

The name Deer Park is derived from an occasion in one of Shakyamuni's former lives as a bodhisattva. He was leading a herd of deer. After much indiscriminate plundering of the herd by a local king, an agreement was made with him that one of them would be offered to him and only when it is necessary. The turn came of a doe. She was supposed to give birth shortly and wished to delay her turn until then. Bodhisattva offered himself instead of her. This act impressed the king so much that he not only resolved to refrain from killing deer in future, but also gave the park to them.

Here, the five ascetics had resumed their austere practices. When they saw Buddha approaching, they thought of as Gautama, who had forsaken their path. They decided not to welcome him. Yet, as He neared they found themselves involuntarily rising and paying respect. Proclaiming that He was Lord Buddha, Shakyamuni assured them that the goal had been attained. Huen Tsang saw a large, dome-shaped stupa on this spot. Today, it houses a large mound, probably the remains of the stupa, surmounted by a Muslim monument.

During the first night, Buddha was silent; during the second, He made a little conversation and on the third, began the teaching. The spot where all the Buddhas first turn the wheel, thousand thrones appeared. Shakyamuni circumambulated those of the three previous Buddhas and sat upon the fourth. Light radiated from his body, illuminating 3,000 worlds, and the earth trembled. Lord Brahma offered him a 1,000-spoked golden wheel, and Indra Deva and other gods also made offerings, all imploring Buddha to teach.

After inviting gods and all those who wished to hear, He said that He spoke not for the purpose of debate, but in order to help living beings gain control of their minds. Shakyamuni began the first turning of the wheel of Dharma. He taught the middle way, which avoids the extremes of pleasure and austerity; the four noble truths and the eightfold path. Kaundmya was the first of the five ascetics to understand and realize the teaching, while Ashvajit was the last. All of them, eventually, became arhants.

The teachings included in the collection, known as the first turning of the wheel, extended over a period of seven years. Other teachings, such as those on the Vinaya and on the practice of close placement of mindfulness, were given elsewhere, but the wheel was turned twelve times at Sarnath.

Starting from the time of Buddha, monastic tradition flourished for over 1,500 years on the site of the Deer Park. Amongst the many ruins, archaeologists have found traces dating from as early as the third century BC. The existing inscription of Ashoka's pillar, dating from that time, implies that a monastery was already established during Ashoka's reign. Fa Hien speaks of two monasteries with monks in residence. Two centuries later, Heun Tsang described a Mahavihara encompassing eight divisions. It comprised of a great temple with ornate balconies, over one hundred niches containing gilt images in its walls and a statue of Buddha in the teaching posture.

The last monastery constructed before the Muslim invasion, the Dharmachakra-jina Vihara, was the largest of all. Kumaradevi, queen of King Govindachandra, who ruled in Benares from 1114-1154, built the monastery. There is a surviving fragment of stone inscription here, which records that in 1058, a monk presented a gift copy of the Prajna-paramita Sutra to the monastery. This incident provides the evidence of Mahayana activity at that time. The discovery of ancient statues of Heruka and Arya Tara in this area shows that Vajrayana was also practiced there.

Formerly, two great stupas adorned the site. However, today only the Dhamekha remains, assigned by its inscription to the sixth century. The Dharmarajika stupa built by Ashoka was pulled down in the eighteenth century by Jagat Singh, who consigned the casket of relics contained within it to the Ganges River. Huen Tsang described that Ashoka's pillar, which stood in front of the stupa, was so highly polished that it constantly reflected the statue of Buddha.

Benares, the second city to reappear following the last destruction of the world, was also a site of the previous Buddha's manifestations. Kashyapa, the third Buddha of this aeon, built a monastery near Deer Park, where he ordained the Brahmin boy, Jotipala, an earlier incarnation of Shakyamuni. Heun Tsang recorded the existence of stupas and an artificial platform on the site where several previous Buddhas walked and sat in meditation.

Deer Park was also the location of Shakyamuni's deeds in His previous lives. Heun Tsang mentioned a number of stupas near the monastery, commemorating these lives. One of stupas honors the event when bodhisattva offered himself as the deer. There was another observing the event when, as a six-tusked elephant, He offered his tusks to a deceitful hunter. The third stupa memorialized the event where He bodhisattva had been a bird, with Maudgalyayana and Sariputra as a monkey and an elephant.

Another stupa commemorated the occasion when Indra manifested as a hungry old man and asked a fox, an ape and a hare (the Buddha in a former life) for food. The fox brought fish, the ape brought fruit, but the bodhisattva hare, having nothing else to offer, threw himself on a fire and offered his roasted body. Indra was so moved by this act that he took the hare and placed him in the moon. Many people in central Asia still refer to the moon as the hare sign, or worship the hare in the moon.

Today, the actual site of the Buddha's teaching at Sarnath as well as the several ruins in the area stand enclosed in a park. Nearby, a well-planned museum houses a number of unearthed statues, many of them barely damaged, along with several other findings from the site. The museum's entrance is dominated by the famous lion capital from Ashoka's pillar.

Adjacent to the park, is the Mahabodhi Society's Mulaghandaluti Temple, an imposing building containing certain relics of the Buddha. Close by is the Society's sangharama and a library, which houses a rare collection of Buddhist literature. Also in the vicinity, are Burmese, Chinese and Tibetan temples. There is also a Tibetan monastery and the Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies nearby, where two hundred young monks practice and study the many aspects of the Buddha's teaching, to qualify for the degree of an Acharya. There is also a Tibetan printing press, The Pleasure of Elegant Sayings, which, over the last decade, has published more than thirty Tibetan texts of Buddhist treatises, otherwise hard to find. The wheel of Dharma that Shakyamuni first turned at Sarnath continues to revolve even today.

Kushinagar

Kushinagar is the place where Shakyamuni entered Mahaparinirvana. When Lord Buddha reached His eighty-first year, He gave his last major teaching. The subject of the teaching consisted of the thirty-seven wings of enlightenment. After this, He left Vulture's Peak with Ananda to journey north. After sleeping at Nalanda, he crossed the Ganges for the last time at the place where Patna now stands and came to the village of Beluva. Here, the Buddha fell ill, but he suppressed the sickness and continued towards Vaishali. This was a city where Shakyamuni had often stayed in the beautiful parks that had been offered to him. It was also the principal location of the third turning of the wheel of Dharma.

While staying at Vaishali, Buddha thrice mentioned to Ananda a Buddha's ability to remain alive till the end of the aeon. Failing to understand the significance of this, Ananda said nothing and went to meditate nearby. Shakyamuni then rejected prolonging his own life span. Later Ananda learned of about this and implored Buddha to live longer. But he was refused, since his request had come too late.

Coming to Pava, the blacksmith's son, Kunda, offered him a meal, which included meat. It is said that all the Buddhas of this world eat meal, containing meat, on the eve of their passing away. Buddha accepted, but directed that no one else should partake in the food. Later, it was learned that the meat was bad. He told Ananda that the merit created by offering an enlightened one his last meal is equal to that of offering food to him just prior to his enlightenment.

Between Pava and Kushinagar, Buddha rested near a village through which a caravan had just passed. The owner of the caravan, a Malla nobleman, came and talked to the Buddha. Deeply moved by Shakyamuni's teachings, he offered Buddha two pieces of shining gold cloth. However, their luster was completely outshone by Shakyamuni's radiance. It is said that a Buddha's complexion becomes prodigiously brilliant on both the eve of his enlightenment and the eve of his decease.

The next day, when they arrived at the banks of the Hiranyavati River, situated to the south of Kushinagar, Buddha suggested that they should go to the caravan leader's sala grove. There, between two pairs of unusually tall trees, Shakyamuni lay down on his right side in the lion posture with his head to the north. Ananda asked if Rajgir or Sravasti would perhaps be more fitting places for his passing. Buddha replied that in an earlier life as a bodhisattva king this had been Kushavati, His capital, and at that time there had been no other city has been more glorious.

The noblemen of Kushinagar, informed of the Buddha's impending death, came to pay him respect. Among them was Subhadra, a 120-year-old Brahmin, who was much respected, but whom Ananda had turned away three times. However, Buddha called the Brahmin to His side, answered his questions concerning the six erroneous doctrines, and revealed to him the truth of the Buddhist teaching. Subhadra asked for permission to join the Sangha and thus became the last monk to be ordained by Shakyamuni. Subhadra then sat nearby in meditation, swiftly attained arhantship and entered parinirvana shortly before Shakyamuni.

As the third watch of the night approached, Buddha asked His disciples thrice if there were any remaining perplexities concerning the doctrine or the discipline. Receiving silence, He gave them the famous exhortation - "Impermanence is inherent in all things. Work out your own salvation with diligence". Then, passing through the meditative absorptions, Shakyamuni Buddha entered Mahaparinirvana. The earth shook, stars shot from the heavens, the sky in the ten directions burst forth in flames and the air was filled with celestial music. The master's body was washed and robed once more, then wrapped in a thousand shrouds and placed in a casket of precious materials.

For seven days, offerings were made by gods and men, after which, amidst flowers and incense, the casket was carried to the place of cremation in great procession. Some legends say that the Mallas offered their cremation hall for the purpose. A pyre of sweetly scented wood and fragrant oils had been built, but, as had been foretold, it did not burn until Mahakashyapa arrived. After the great disciple eventually arrived, made prostrations and paid his respects, the pyre burst into flames spontaneously.

After the cremation ceremony was complete, the ashes were examined for relics. Only a skull bone, teeth and the inner and outer shrouds remained. The Mallas of Kushinagar first thought themselves most fortunate to have received all the relics of the Buddha's body. However, representatives of the other eight countries that constituted ancient India also came forth to claim them. To avert a conflict, a Brahmin, Dona, suggested an equal, eightfold division of the relics between them. Some records state that in fact Shakyamuni's remains were first divided into three portions, one each for the gods, nagas and men. The portion given to humans was then subdivided into eight. Each of the eight people took their share to their own countries and eight great stupas were built over them. These relics were again subdivided, after Ashoka decided to build 84,000 stupas. Today, they are contained in various stupas scattered across Asia.

Fa Hien found monasteries at Kushinagar. But, when Huen Tsang came here, the site was almost deserted. He did see an Ashoka stupa marking Kunda's house, the site of Buddha's last meal. Commemorating the Mahaparinirvana was a large brick temple containing a recumbent statue of Buddha. Beside this, was a partly ruined Ashoka stupa and a pillar with an inscription describing the holy event. Two more stupas commemorated the former lives of the Buddha at the place. Both Chinese pilgrims mention a stupa where Shakyamuni's protector Vajrapani threw down his scepter in dismay, after Buddha's death. Some distance away was a stupa, at the place of cremation and Ashoka built another, where the relics were divided.

Kushinagar was rediscovered and identified before the end of the last century. Excavations have revealed that a monastic tradition flourished here for a long time. The remains of ten different monasteries, dating from the fourth century to the eleventh century, have been found. Most of these ruins are now enclosed in a park, in the midst of which stands a modern shrine housing a large recumbent figure of the Buddha. This statue was originally made in Mathura and installed at Kushinagar by the monk Haribhadra, during the reign of King Kumaragupta, the alleged founder of Nalanda Monastery. When the statue was discovered, late in the last century, it was broken. However, it has now been restored. Behind this shrine, is a large stupa dating from the Gupta age. The Burmese restored the stupa early in this century. Not far away, is a small temple, built on the Buddha's last resting place in front of the sala grove. It has also been restored. There is a large stupa to the east, now called Ramabhar.

On one side of the park, a former Chinese temple has been reopened as an international meditation center. Next to it stands a large Burmese temple. On the south side of the park, there is a small Tibetan monastery, with Tibetan style stupas beside it.

McLeodganj

Location:	Himachal Pradesh
Founded In:	Mid 19th century
Highlights:	Home of His Holiness, The Dalai Lama

The town of McLeodganj is situated in Himachal Pradesh, India. The town dates back to the mid 19th century when it was established as a British garrison. Mcleodganj was initially the home of the semi-nomadic Gaddi tribe. Today, it serves as the residence of His Holiness, The 14th Dalai Lama - Tenzin Gyatso. However, even now, a considerable number of Gaddi families live in the villages around Mcleod Ganj.

Tourist Attractions in McLeodganj

Residence of the Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama lives on the south edge of town. He came to Macleod Ganj in the year 1960 and since then, he has been living here only. Most of his house has been transformed into government offices, while he occupies only a small portion of the entire complex.

Tsuglagkhang
Tsuglagkhang, the main Buddhist temple of Dharamsala, is situated just opposite the private residence of The Dalai Lama. It houses the images of Shakyamuni, Padmasambhava and Avalokitesvara, all of them sitting in meditation postures.

Gompa Dip Tse-Chok Ling
Gompa Dip Tse-Chok Ling is a small monastery situated at the foot of a sharp road. The main prayer hall of the monastery is adorned with the image of Shakyamuni. The other attractions of the monastery include its beautiful and intricate mandals.

Library of Tibetan Works & Archives
There is also a library of Tibetan works and archives in McLeodganj. It comprises of a rich collection of almost 40 % of the original Tibetan manuscripts. There is also a photographic archive in the library.

How To Reach

By Air
The nearest Airport is at Gaggla, approxiamtely 13 km away from the town.

By Rail
The nearest railway station is that of Pathankot, approxiamtely 85 km away.

By Road
There are regular bus services from Manali, Delhi and Shimla to Dharamsala.

Pilak

Location:	Approximately 100 km from Agartala, Tripura
Highlights:	Archaeological remains representing Hinduism as well as Buddhism

Pilak is situated in the state of Tripura, surrounded by flourishing green valley speckled with paddy fields. It lies at a distance of approximately 100 km from the capital city of Agartala. The city is sparsely populated and serves as the gateway to the rich bygone era of the state. Pilak is significant as a pilgrim destination in India, from both Hinduism as well as Buddhism point of view. One of the major attractions of the city are the archaeological remains found here, which date back to somewhere around eighth and ninth century AD.

One can find some of the most exquisite Hindu and Buddhist sculptures at Pilak in Tripura. The relics unearthed at Pilak include terracotta plaques, sealing with Stupa, huge stone images of Avolokiteswara and Narasimha, etc. The plaques and the sealing signify survival of heterodox creeds and sects representing both Hinduism as well as Buddhism.

How to reach Pilak

By Air
The nearest airport is that of Agartala.

By Rail
The nearest rail station is at Kumarghat.

By Road
There are regular bus services between Agartala and Julaibari. From Julaibari, you can take an auto to reach Pilak.

Buddhism in Andhra pradesh

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Buddhist Sites in Andhra Pradesh

Buddhism spread to Andhra Pradesh and surrounding areas in the third and second centuries BC. This fact is proved by stupas and other Buddhist structures in various parts of Andhra Pradesh. From Vijayapuri or 'Sriparvata' and Amaravati, Buddhism spread to the Far East including China and Japan and to Srilanka. There are dozens of Buddhist sites in Andhra Pradesh.

Amravati

Location:	65 Km from Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh
Founded By:	An emissary of Emperor Ashoka
Timings:	10 am to 5 pm (Fridays closed)

The city of Amravati is situated in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It lies on the right bank of River Krishna, at a distance of approximately 65 km from Vijayawada. The erstwhile capital of Satavahana dynasty, it came under the influence of Buddhism through the Kushanas of Mathura. One of the major attractions of Amravati consists of the remains of a 2000-year-old Buddhist settlement, along with the great Buddhist stupa. There is also a temple dedicated to Lord Amaresvara in the city.

The Great Stupa of Amravati was constructed approximately 2000 years ago and stands taller than the stupa at Sanchi. Founded by an emissary of the great Emperor Ashoka, it is also known as the Mahastupa and Deepaladinne (the Mound of Lamps). The stupa is made of brick with a circular vedika and depicts Lord Buddha in a human form, subduing an elephant. It is adorned with 95 ft high platforms, protruding in four cardinal directions. Presently, Amravati stupa has been kept at the Government Museum of Chennai.

How to Reach Amravati

By Air
The airport nearest to Amravati is that of Vijayawada, situated at a distance of 65 km.

By Rail
The nearest railway station is in Guntur, approximately 32 km away.

By Road
Frequent bus and taxi services are available for Amravati, from Guntur and Vijayawada.

Nagarjunakonda

Location:	Guntur District, near Hyderabad
Highlights:	Ancient Buddhist site known for Buddhist architecture like Chaityas, Viharas etc

Nagarjunakonda is a valley situated in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. It lies at a distance of approximately 150 km from the capital city of Hyderabad. Nagarjuna Konda is named after Nagarjuna, a Buddhist monk, who lived here around the turn of the 2nd century AD. A magnificent example of ancient Buddhist architecture, it is remake of the original Buddhist site. The original valley was shifted, as it was at the danger of being submerged under the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. The valley symbolizes a lost civilization, which flourished thousand years ago.

A number of excavations were carried out here, coming up with the Maha Chaitya, Viharas and Monasteries. Some of the most ancient items of Buddhism were also unearthed during the excavations, like Buddha statues, relics, stone images, Jataka tales encrypted panels and other items of Buddhist origin. It is believed that the antique sculptures belong to the Ikshvaku rule. The ruins of a university have also been found at Nagarjunakonda. There is also a museum, known as Nagarjunakonda Museum, housing all the important excavated items.

How to reach Nagarjunakonda

By Air
The airport nearest to Nagarjunakonda is that of Hyderabad, well connected with all the major cities of India.

By Rail
Macherla, 20 km from Nagarjunakonda, is the nearest railway station.

By Road
It is well connected with Hyderabad, by road.

Buddhist Calendar

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Buddhist Calendar

The Buddhist calendar is luni-solar, a combination of the lunar and solar calendars. It is based on the original third century Surya Siddhanta. The months in this calendar alternate between 29 and 30 and at regular intervals, an intercalated day and a 30-day month added to it. The people living in the Southeast Asian countries mainly use the Buddhist calendar. These countries include Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar (formerly Burma). There are mainly four versions of the Calendar of the Buddhists.

The lunisolar intercalation system of the calendar has seven extra months (adhikamasa), every 19 years and 11 extra days (adhikavara), every 57 years. On an average, a year consists of 365.25875 days, deemed from the mahayuga of 4,320,000 years. While the Hindu version makes additions and deduction the moment the astronomical formulae require, the Southeast Asian one delays it. Then, we have the Thai/Lao/Cambodian version in which there cannot be an extra day in the year having an extra month.

The Burmese version is exactly the opposite. It permits an extra day only in the years having an extra month. Thus, each of the four versions of the calendar has different days, i.e. 354, 355, 384, or 385 days respectively. The names of the month are in Sanskrit, namely Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyestha, Ashadha, Shravan, Bhadrapada, Asvina, Kartik, Maragasirsha, Pausha, Magha and Phalguna. The old Burmese month names were Tagu, Kason, Nayon, Wazo, Wagaung, Tawthalin, Thadingyut, Tarzaungmon, Natdaw, Pyatho, Tabodwe and Tabaung. There were/are mainly four eras in the Buddhist calendars, namely…

Anchansakarat - From 10 March 691 BC
Buddhasakarat - Buddhist Era or BE, 11 March 545 BC
Mahasakarat - 17 March 78 (same as the Saka Era in India)
Chulasakarat - 22 March 638

Since all years are elapsed/expired/complete years, their epochal year is not year 1, but year 0.

Basic Buddhist Vocabulary

2008-01-11T07:52:00.001-08:00

Abhidharma pitaka -- higher teachings, philosophy
Alaya-vijñana -- “store” consciousness (similar to collective unconscious?)
Amitabha -- the Buddha of the Western “Pure Land." Also known as Amida.
Ananda -- Buddha’s friend, cousin, and favorite disciple, and the monk who remembered the Sutras.
Anatman (anatta) -- not-self, self or ego not ultimately real.
Annitya (anicca) -- change, impermanence of all things, including us.
Arahant -- Worthy one, a name for the Buddha.
Arhat -- a monk who has achieved nirvana.
Asanga -- one of two brothers who lived in India in the 300's ad who developed Yogachara.
Asita -- the astrologer who predicts Buddha’s fate
Asuras -- titans or demigods.
Avalokiteshwara -- boddhisattva of compassion
Avidya (avijja) -- ignorance, delusion.
Bardo -- (Tibet) the period between death and rebirth.
Bhagava -- The blessed one, a name for the Buddha.
Bhikshu -- monk.
Bhikshuni -- nun.
Bodh-gaya -- a town in Bihar where Buddha was enlightened at 35.
Bodhi -- enlightenment, awakening.
Bodhi tree -- the fig tree under which Buddha gained enlightenment.
Bodhicitta -- sanskrit word for 'mind of enlightenment'
Bodhidharma -- monk who brought Buddhism to China.
Bodhisattva -- enlightened being who remains in this existence to help others, a saint.
Brahma -- the supreme deva, who convinced Buddha to teach.
Brahma vihara -- four "sublime states" of the boddhisattva: Maitri, Karuna, Mudita, Upeksa.
Buddha -- The awakened one, the enlightened one.
Ch’an -- Chinese for Zen Buddhism.
Chandaka -- Buddha’s squire, who helped him leave his princely life.
Ching-T’u -- Chinese for Pure Land.
Citta -- basic mind or consciousness
Citta-matra -- mind only, idealism
Dalai Lama -- the leader of Tibetan Buddhists.
Deer Park -- where Buddha gave his first sermon, in Sarnath, near Benares, to the five sadhus.
Dependent origination -- “one thing leads to another,” all is connected.
Devadatta -- Buddha’s “evil” cousin. "Theodore."
Devas -- gods.
Dhamma -- Pali for dharma.
Dharma (dhamma) -- the teachings of the Buddha.
Dharmakaya -- Buddha-mind, the pervasive essence
Dharmas -- ultimate elements of the universe (not dharma as in teachings!)
Dhyana (ch’an, zen) -- meditation.
Dogen (1200-1253) -- monk who brought Soto Zen to Japan.
Duhkha (dukkha) -- suffering, distress, lack of peace. First noble truth.
Dzogchen -- Tibetan tantric techniques for rapid enlightenment.
Dvesha (dosha) -- hatred, anger, avoidance.
Eightfold Path -- right view, aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration.
Five sadhus -- the five ascetics who practiced self-mortification with the Buddha.
Flower Adornment School -- a sect which attempted to consolidate all forms of Buddhism. Also known as Hua-Yen or Kegon.
Gandharvas -- angelic beings who provide the gods with music.
Gati -- realm. Used to refer to the six realms (gods, titans, humans, animals, ghosts, and demons)
Gautama (Gotama) -- Buddha's family name.
Hinayana -- southern Buddhism (“small or lesser vehicle or journey”).
Ho-tei -- Japanese name for Pu-tai
Indra -- a major deva, originally the Hindu sky god.
Jodo, Jodoshin -- Japanese for Pure Land.
Kalpa -- millions of years, an eternity.
Kamma -- Pali for karma.
Kanthaka -- Buddha’s horse.
Kapilavastu -- Shakyan capital, where Buddha grew up.
Karma (kamma) -- intentional or willed act.
Karuna -- compassion or mercy, the special kindness shown to those who suffer. One of the four brahma vihara.
Kashinagara -- were Buddha died (near Lumbini), in a grove of sala trees.
Koan -- a very brief story demonstrating the paradoxical nature of dualistic thinking. Used in Zen meditation.
Kwan Yin , Kwannon -- Chinese and Japanese names for Avalokiteswara.
Lama -- Tibetan tantric master, now often used to refer to any respected monk.
Lumbini Grove -- where Buddha was born, during his mother’s trip to her parents home.
Madhyamaka -- middle way, negative logic, not this -- not that
Mahakyashapa -- the monk who understood the silent sermon and led the first council.
Mahamaya, or Mayadevi -- Buddha’s mother, who died seven days after his birth
Mahaprajapati -- Buddha’s aunt and stepmother, founder of Buddhist nuns.
Mahayana -- northern Buddhism (“large or greater vehicle or journey”).
Maitreya -- the future Buddha, who will be born 30,000 years from now.
Maitri -- caring, loving kindness displayed to all you meet. One of the four brahma vihara.
Manas -- I-consciousness, mind, intelligence
Mandala -- a complex, circular, symmetrical image used in meditation
Mantra -- a phrase or syllable repeated during meditation
Mara -- a deva associated with death and hindrances to enlightenment. It was Mara who tempted Buddha under the bodhi tree.
Marga -- the path, track. The eightfold noble path. Fourth noble truth.
Metta -- Pali for Maitri.
Mudita -- sympathetic joy, being happy for others, without a trace of envy. One of the four brahma vihara.
Mudra -- symbolic hand positions
Nagarjuna -- monk who developed Madhyamaka in India about 150 ad.
Nagas -- great serpents (or dragons, or water creatures). The king of the Nagas protected Buddha from a storm.
Narakas -- demons (hell beings)
Nibbana -- Pali for nirvana.
Nichiren -- Japanese school popular in west, and the name of its founder. Emphasizes chanting.
Nirmankaya -- Gotama, the historical Buddha.
Nirodha -- containment of suffering. Third noble truth.
Nirvana (nibbana) -- liberation, enlightenment, release from samsara.
Pali -- a language related to Sanskrit in which the earliest scriptures were recorded in Sri Lanka.
Pali canon -- see the Tripitaka.
Pancha shila -- five moral precepts: Avoid killing, or harming any living thing; Avoid stealing; Avoid sexual irresponsibility; Avoid lying, or any hurtful speech; Avoid alcohol and drugs which diminish clarity of consciousness.
Pañña -- Pali for prajña
Pitaka -- basket, referring to the Tripitaka or scriptures.
Prajña (pañña) -- wisdom.
Prajña -- goddess of knowledge. Buddha’s mother was considered an incarnation.
Prajñaparamita -- a massive collection of Mahayana texts, including the Heart and Diamond Sutras.
Prateyaka-buddha -- solitary realizer.
Pretas -- hungry ghosts.
Puja -- ceremony in which offerings and other acts of devotion are performed.
Pu-tai -- the laughing buddha, chinese monk, incarnation of Maitreya
Pure Land -- Chinese/Japanese sect, emphasizing worship of Amitabha Buddha. Ching- T'u, Jodo and Jodoshin.
Rahula -- Buddha’s son.
Rinzai Zen -- a Zen sect that makes extensive use of koans.
Rupa -- form, the physical body and senses
Samadhi -- meditation.
Samatha -- Pali for Shamatha.
Sambhogakaya -- Buddha as a deva or god.
Samjña -- perception
Samsara -- the wheel of cyclic existence, birth-life-suffering-death-rebirth...
Samskara -- mental formations (emotions and impulses)
Samudaya -- arising or root of suffering. Second noble truth.
Sangha -- the community of monks and nuns.
Sanskrit -- an early language of northern India, modified and used as a religious language by some Buddhists.
Sanzen -- interview with a master in Zen Buddhism
Sati -- Pali for smrti.
Satori -- Zen term for enlightenment.
Shakyamuni -- Sage of the Sakyas, a name for the Buddha.
Shakyas -- a noble clan, ruled an area of southern Nepal.
Shamatha (samatha) -- “calm abiding,” peacefulness.
Shikantaza -- mindfulness meditation in Zen Buddhism.
Shila (sila) -- morality.
Shravaka -- “hearer,” one who needs the help of others to become enlightened.
Shrota-appana -- “stream-winner” (only seven more rebirths!).
Shuddodana -- Buddha’s father.
Shunyata -- emptiness, lack of inherent existence of “own nature.”
Siddhartha Gautama -- “He who has reached his goal.”
Sila -- Pali for shila.
Six realms -- realms of the gods, asuras, humans, animals, pretas, narakas.
Skandhas -- parts of the self.
Smrti (sati) -- mindfulness, meditation.
Son -- Korean for Zen Buddhism.
Soto Zen -- A Zen sect emphasizing Shikantaza meditation
Sthaviravada -- Sanskrit for Theravada, "way of the elders"
Sujata -- the village girl who gave Buddha milk-rice.
Sukhavati -- Sanskrit for Blissful Land, the "Pure Land" of Amitabha.
Sutra (sutta) pitaka -- sacred texts, sayings of the Buddha.
Tantra -- yogic, magico-ritual form.
Taras -- a set of 21 female saviors, born from Avalokiteshwara’s tears. Green Tara and White Tara are the best known.
Tathagata -- “thus gone,” a name for the Buddha.
Tendai -- see White Lotus School.
Thangka -- a traditional Tibetan painting of a holy being.
The Four Noble Truths: duhkha, samudaya, nirodha, marga.
Theravada -- “way of the elders,” only surviving form of southern Buddhism.
Three bodies -- nirmankaya, sambhogakaya, dharmakaya. Three meanings of "Buddha."
Three fires (or poisons) -- the causes of suffering.
Tipitaka -- Pali for Tripitaka.
Tripitaka (three baskets) -- earliest Buddhist scriptures: Vinaya pitaka, sutra pitaka, abhidarma pitaka.
Trishna (tanha) -- thirst, craving, desire.
Upali -- the first person ordained as a monk by the Buddha, a barber, and the monk who remembered the Vinaya or code of the monks.
Upeksa (upekkha) is equanimity, levelness, or grace. One of the four brahma vihara.
Vajrayana -- tantric Buddhism (“thunderbolt vehicle”), esp. Tibetan Buddhism.
Vasubandhu -- one of two brothers who lived in India in the 300's ad who developed Yogachara.
Vedana -- sensation, feeling.
Vijñana -- consciousness or mind.
Vinaya pitaka -- discipline basket (code of behavior for monks).
Vipaka -- “fruit” of willed act, the consequences.
Vipashyana (vipassana) -- insight, mindfulness.
White Lotus School -- sect focusing on the Lotus Sutra. Also known as T'ien T'ai or Tendai.
Yama -- the king of the 21 hells.
Yashodhara -- Buddha’s wife, whom he married when they were both 16
Yidam -- mental image of a god or other entity used for meditation
Yogacara (or vijñañavada) -- school emphasizing primacy of consciousness
Zazen -- sitting meditation in Zen Buddhism
Zen -- a group of Buddhist sects that focus on meditation. Also known as Ch'an, Son, or Dhyana.

The Basics of Buddhist Morality

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The Pancha Shila, or five moral precepts:

1. Avoid killing, or harming any living thing.

2. Avoid stealing -- taking what is not yours to take.

3. Avoid sexual irresponsibility, which for monks and nuns means celibacy.

4. Avoid lying, or any hurtful speech.

5. Avoid alcohol and drugs which diminish clarity of consciousness.

To these, monks and nuns add...

6. One simple meal a day, before noon.

7. Avoid frivolous entertainments.

8. Avoid self-adornment.

9. Use a simple bed and seat.

10. Avoid the use of money.

Full monastic life adds over two hundred more rules and regulations!

The Paramita

The Perfections or Virtues -- noble qualities that we should all strive to achieve. Here are two versions:

1. Generosity (P: dana)
2. Moral discipline (P: sila)
3. Patience and tolerance (P: khanti)
4. Wisdom or (full-) consciousness (P: pañña)
5. Energy (P: viriya)
6. Renunciation (P: nekkhamma)
7. Truthfulness (P: sacca)
8. Determination (P: adhitthana)
9. Loving kindness (P: metta)
10. Equanimity (P: upekkha)

1. Generosity (dana)
2. Moral discipline (shila)
3. Patience and tolerance (kshanti)
4. Energy (virya)
5. Meditation (dhyana)
6. Wisdom or (full-) consciousness (prajña)
7. Skilled methods (upaya)
8. Vow or resolution (pranidhana)
9. The ten powers or special abilities (dashabala)
10. Knowledge (jñana)

The Brahma Vihara

The Brahma Vihara are the four "sublime states" to which we all should aspire. They are the great signs of the Bodhisattva, who vows to remain in samsara -- this world of pain and sorrow -- until all creation can be brought into the state of Nirvana together.

1. Maitri is caring, loving kindness displayed to all you meet.

2. Karuna is compassion or mercy, the kindness shown to those who suffer.

3. Mudita is sympathetic joy, being happy for others, without a trace of envy.

4. Upeksa is equanimity or peacefulness, the ability to accept the ups and downs of life with equal dispassion.

The Sigalovada Sutta

This Sutra is a record of the words of the Buddha to Sigalo, a young middle class man, who was on his way to worship the six directions, east, west, north, south, up, and down. His father had died and asked him to worship in this very ancient fashion in remembrance of him. The Buddha, wishing this ritual to have more meaning for the young man, advised him in detail about how to live a good life as a layman. He phrased himself, as he apparently so often did, using lists, and begins by warning him against many of the evils of the layman's life.

The four vices:

1. The destruction of life
2. Stealing
3. Sexual misconduct
4. Lying

The four things which lead to evil:

1. Desire, meaning greed, lust, clinging
2. Anger and hatred
3. Ignorance
4. Fear and anxiety

The six ways one dissipates ones wealth:

1. Drinking and drugs
2. Carousing late at night
3. Wasting away your time at shows
4. Gambling
5. Keeping bad company
6. Laziness

And he provides details regarding these last six that demonstrate the manners in which drink, etc., lead to one's downfall.

Then he provides a lesson on friendship -- how to distinguish good friends from bad friends. There are four types that are not really your friends, but will make your life miserable in the long run:

1. The leech who appropriates your possessions
2. The bull-shitter who manipulates you
3. The boot-licker who flatters you
4. The party-animal who encourages you to do the same

A good friend, on the other hand, is one who...

1. is always ready to help you
2. is steady and loyal
3. provides good advice
4. is sympathetic

The Buddha even gives some advice regarding one's finances:

1. One quarter of your earnings should be used to cover your expenses.
2. Two quarters should be re-invested in your business.
3. One quarter should be put into savings for times of need.

Finally, the Buddha discusses how one might best benefit from worshipping the six directions.

Regarding the east, a child should be good to his or her parents: support them, help them, keep their traditions, be worthy of your inheritance, and offer alms in their honor when they die.

A parent should be good to his or her children as well: keep them from getting into trouble, encourage them to be good, train them for a profession, make sure they are suitably married, and provide a good inheritance.

Regarding the south, a student should be good to his or her teachers: show respect, work hard, and be eager to learn.

A teacher should be good to his or her students: teach them well, make sure they understand, help them achieve their goals.

Regarding the west, a husband should be good to his wife: treat her well, be faithful to her, share authority with her, and give her jewelry ;-)

A wife should be good to her husband: be gracious, faithful, industrious, and frugal.

Regarding the north, a friend should be good to his or her friends: be generous, helpful, loyal, protective, and so on.

Regarding the nadir ("down"), an employer should be good to his or her employees: assign work according to their abilities, provide food and wages, take care of them when they are sick, share delicacies with them, and grant them occasional leave.

Employees should be good to their employers: Get to work early, leave late, perform their duties well, don't pilfer from the supply closet, and uphold their employer's good name.

And finally, regarding the zenith ("up"), lay people should be good to people who have devoted themselves to the spiritual life: kind deeds, kind words, kind thoughts, opening one's home to them, and supplying them with their physical needs.

And people in the spiritual life should be good to lay people: keep them from doing evil, encourage them to do good, make sure they hear the dharma, clarify what they don't understand, point out the way, and generally love them.

Keep these relationships in mind, he tells Sigalovada, and the ritual your father asked you to keep will have greater benefits than he ever dreamed of. Although some of the details may be a bit dated -- it has been some 2500 years, after all -- it can still serve quite well as a guide to moral behavior for the common man or woman of today!

Buddha concludes with a poem:

Who is wise and virtuous,
Gentle and keen-witted,
Humble and amenable,
Such a one to honor may attain.
Who is energetic and not indolent,
In misfortune unshaken,
Flawless in manner and intelligent,
Such a one to honor may attain.

Who is hospitable and friendly,
Liberal and unselfish,
A guide, an instructor, a leader,
Such a one to honor may attain.

Generosity, sweet speech,
Helpfulness to others,
Impartiality to all,
As the case demands.

These four winning ways make the world go round,
As the linchpin in a moving car.
If these in the world exist not,
Neither mother nor father will receive,
Respect and honor from their children.

From The Sigalovada Sutta, DN31, translated by Narada Thera (http://world.std.com/~metta/canon/digha/dn31.html).

The Ten Duties of a King

(from the Pali Jatakas)

But the common man or woman is not the only one for whom Buddha provides guidance...

1. Dana: Liberality, generosity, charity, concern with the welfare of the people.
2. Sila: High moral character, observing at least the Five Precepts.
3. Parccaga: Willing to sacrifice everything for the people -- comfort, fame, even his life.
4. Ajjava: Honesty and integrity, not fearing some or favoring others.
5. Maddava: Kindness and gentleness.
6. Tapa: Austerity, content in the simple life.
7. Akkodha: Free from hatred, ill-will, and anger.
8. Avihimsa: Non-violence, a commitment to peace.
9. Khanti: Patience, tolerance, and the ability to understand others’ perspectives.
10. Avirodha: Non-obstruction, ruling in harmony with the will of the people and in their best interests.

The Buddha's Words on Kindness (Metta Sutta)

This is what should be done
By one who is skilled in goodness,
And who knows the path of peace:
Let them be able and upright,
Straightforward and gentle in speech.
Humble and not conceited,
Contented and easily satisfied.
Unburdened with duties and frugal in their ways.
Peaceful and calm, and wise and skillful,
Not proud and demanding in nature.
Let them not do the slightest thing
That the wise would later reprove.
Wishing: In gladness and in saftey,
May all beings be at ease.
Whatever living beings there may be;
Whether they are weak or strong, omitting none,
The great or the mighty, medium, short or small,
The seen and the unseen,
Those living near and far away,
Those born and to-be-born,
May all beings be at ease!

Let none deceive another,
Or despise any being in any state.
Let none through anger or ill-will
Wish harm upon another.
Even as a mother protects with her life
Her child, her only child,
So with a boundless heart
Should one cherish all living beings:
Radiating kindness over the entire world
Spreading upwards to the skies,
And downwards to the depths;
Outwards and unbounded,
Freed from hatred and ill-will.
Whether standing or walking, seated or lying down
Free from drowsiness,
One should sustain this recollection.
This is said to be the sublime abiding.
By not holding to fixed views,
The pure-hearted one, having clarity of vision,
Being freed from all sense desires,
Is not born again into this world.

The Buddha's World

2008-01-11T07:49:00.000-08:00

The Buddha's World

The History of Buddhism

2008-01-11T07:48:00.000-08:00

Soon after Buddha's death or parinirvana, five hundred monks met at the first council at Rajagrha, under the leadership of Kashyapa. Upali recited the monastic code (Vinaya) as he remembered it. Ananda, Buddha's cousin, friend, and favorite disciple -- and a man of prodigious memory! -- recited Buddha's lessons (the Sutras). The monks debated details and voted on final versions. These were then committed to memory by other monks, to be translated into the many languages of the Indian plains. It should be noted that Buddhism remained an oral tradition for over 200 years.

In the next few centuries, the original unity of Buddhism began to fragment. The most significant split occurred after the second council, held at Vaishali 100 years after the first. After debates between a more liberal group and traditionalists, the liberal group left and labeled themselves the Mahasangha -- "the great sangha." They would eventually evolve into the Mahayana tradition of northern Asia.

The traditionalists, now referred to as Sthaviravada or "way of the elders" (or, in Pali, Theravada), developed a complex set of philosophical ideas beyond those elucidated by Buddha. These were collected into the Abhidharma or "higher teachings." But they, too, encouraged disagreements, so that one splinter group after another left the fold. Ultimately, 18 schools developed, each with their own interpretations of various issues, and spread all over India and Southeast Asia. Today, only the school stemming from the Sri Lankan Theravadan survives.

Ashoka

One of the most significant events in the history of Buddhism is the chance encounter of the monk Nigrodha and the emperor Ashoka Maurya. Ashoka, succeeding his father after a bloody power struggle in 268 bc, found himself deeply disturbed by the carnage he caused while suppressing a revolt in the land of the Kalingas. Meeting Nigrodha convinced Emperor Ashoka to devote himself to peace. On his orders, thousands of rock pillars were erected, bearing the words of the Buddha, in the brahmi script -- the first written evidence of Buddhism. The third council of monks was held at Pataliputra, the capital of Ashoka's empire.

There is a story that tells about a poor young boy who, having nothing to give the Buddha as a gift, collected a handful of dust and innocently presented it. The Buddha smiled and accepted it with the same graciousness he accepted the gifts of wealthy admirers. That boy, it is said, was reborn as the Emperor Ashoka.

Ashoka sent missionaries all over India and beyond. Some went as far as Egypt, Palestine, and Greece. St. Origen even mentions them as having reached Britain. The Greeks of one of the Alexandrian kingdoms of northern India adopted Buddhism, after their King Menandros (Pali: Milinda) was convinced by a monk named Nagasena -- the conversation immortalized in the Milinda Pañha. A Kushan king of north India named Kanishka was also converted, and a council was held in Kashmir in about 100 ad. Greek Buddhists there recorded the Sutras on copper sheets which, unfortunately, were never recovered.

It is interesting to note that there is a saint in Orthodox Christianity named Josaphat, an Indian king whose story is essentially that of the Buddha. Josaphat is thought to be a distortion of the word bodhisattva.

Sri Lanka and Theravada

Emperor Ashoka sent one of his sons, Mahinda, and one of his daughters, Sanghamitta, a monk and a nun, to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) around the year 240 bc. The king of Sri Lanka, King Devanampiyatissa, welcomed them and was converted. One of the gifts they brought with them was a branch of the bodhi tree, which was successfully transplanted. The descendants of this branch can still be found on the island.

The fourth council was held in Sri Lanka, in the Aloka Cave, in the first century bc. During this time as well, and for the first time, the entire set of Sutras were recorded in the Pali language on palm leaves. This became Theravada's Pali Canon, from which so much of our knowledge of Buddhism stems. It is also called the Tripitaka (Pali: Tipitaka), or three baskets: The three sections of the canon are the Vinaya Pitaka (the monastic law), the Sutta Pitaka (words of the Buddha), and the Abhidamma Pitaka (the philosophical commentaries).

In a very real sense, Sri Lanka's monks may be credited with saving the Theravada tradition: Although it had spread once from India all over southeast Asia, it had nearly died out due to competition from Hinduism and Islam, as well as war and colonialism. Theravada monks spread their tradition from Sri Lanka to Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Laos, and from these lands to Europe and the west generally.

Mahayana

Mahayana began in the first century bc, as a development of the Mahasangha rebellion. Their more liberal attitudes toward monastic tradition allowed the lay community to have a greater voice in the nature of Buddhism. For better or worse, the simpler needs of the common folk were easier for the Mahayanists to meet. For example, the people were used to gods and heroes. So, the Trikaya (three bodies) doctrine came into being: Not only was Buddha a man who became enlightened, he was also represented by various god-like Buddhas in various appealing heavens, as well as by the Dharma itself, or Shunyata (emptiness), or Buddha-Mind, depending on which interpretation we look at -- sort of a Buddhist Father, Son, and Holy Ghost!

More important, however, was the increased importance of the Bodhisattva. A Bodhisattva is someone who has attained enlightenment, but who chooses to remain in this world of Samsara in order to bring others to enlightenment. He is a lot like a saint, a spiritual hero, for the people to admire and appeal to.

Along with new ideas came new scriptures. Also called Sutras, they are often attributed to Buddha himself, sometimes as special transmissions that Buddha supposedly felt were too difficult for his original listeners and therefore were hidden until the times were ripe. The most significant of these new Sutras are these:

Prajñaparamita or Perfection of Wisdom, an enormous collection of often esoteric texts, including the famous Heart Sutra and Diamond Sutra. The earliest known piece of printing in the world is, in fact, a copy of the Diamond Sutra, printed in China in 868 ad.

Suddharma-pundarika or White Lotus of the True Dharma, also often esoteric, includes the Avalokiteshwara Sutra, a prayer to that Bodhisattva.

Vimalakirti-nirdesha or Vimalakirti's Exposition, is the teachings of and stories about the enlightened householder Vimalakirti.

Shurangama-samadhi or Hero's Sutra, provides a guide to meditation, shunyata, and the bodhisattva. It is most popular among Zen Buddhists

Sukhavati-vyuha or Pure Land Sutra, is the most important Sutra for the Pure Land Schools of Buddhism. The Buddha tells Ananda about Amitabha and his Pure Land or heaven, and how one can be reborn there.

There are many, many others. Finally, Mahayana is founded on two new philosophical interpretations of Buddhism: Madhyamaka and Yogachara.

Madhyamaka

Madhyamaka means "the middle way." You may recall that Buddha himself called his way the middle way in his very first sermon. He meant, at that time, the middle way between the extremes of hedonistic pleasure and extreme asceticism. But he may also have referred to the middle way between the competing philosophies of
eternalism and annihilationism -- the belief that the soul exists forever and that the soul is annihilated at death. Or between materialism and nihilism.... An Indian monk by the name of Nagarjuna took this idea and expanded on it to create the philosophy that would be known as Madhyamaka, in a book called the Mulamadhyamaka-karika, written about 150 ad.

Basically a treatise on logical argument, it concludes that nothing is absolute, everything is relative, nothing exists on its own, everything is interdependent. All systems, beginning with the idea that each thing is what it is and not something else (Aristotle's law of the excluded middle), wind up contradicting themselves. Rigorous logic, in other words, leads one away from all systems, and to the concept of shunyata.

Shunyata means emptiness. This doesn't mean that nothing exists. It means that nothing exists in and of itself, but only as a part of a universal web of being. This would become a central concept in all branches of Mahayana. Of course, it is actually a restatement of the central Buddhist concepts of anatman, anitya, and dukkha!

Yogachara

The second philosophical innovation, Yogachara, is credited to two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu, who lived in India in the 300's ad. They elaborated earlier movements in the direction of the philosophy of idealism or chitta-matra. Chitta-matra means literally mind only. Asanga and Vasubandhu believed that everything that exists is mind or consciousness. What we think of as physical things are just projections of our minds, delusions or hallucinations, if you like. To get rid of these delusions, we must meditate, which for the Yogachara school means the creation of pure consciousness, devoid of all content. In that way, we leave our deluded individual minds and join with the universal mind, or Buddha-mind.

Tantra

The last innovation was less philosophical and far more practical: Tantra. Tantra refers to certain writings which are concerned, not with philosophical niceties, but with the basic how-to of enlightenment, and not just with enlightenment in several rebirths, but enlightenment here-and-now!

In order to accomplish this feat, dramatic methods are needed, ones which, to the uninitiated, may seem rather bizarre. Tantra was the domain of the siddhu, the adept -- someone who knows the secrets, a magician in the ways of enlightenment. Tantra involves the use of various techniques, including the well-known mandalas, mantras, and mudras. mandalas are paintings or other representations of higher awareness, usually in the form of a circular pattern of images, which may provide the focus of one-pointed meditation. Mantras are words or phrases that serve the same purpose, such as the famous "Om mani padme hum." Mudras are hand positions that symbolize certain qualities of enlightenment.

Less well known are the yidams. A yidam is the image of a god or goddess or other spiritual being, either physically represented or, more commonly, imagined clearly in the mind's eye. Again, these represent archetypal qualities of enlightenment, and one-pointed meditation on these complex images lead the adept to his or her goal.

These ideas would have enormous impact on Mahayana. They are not without critics, however: Madhyamaka is sometimes criticized as word-play, and Yogachara is criticized as reintroducing atman, eternal soul or essence, to Buddhism. Tantra has been most often criticized, especially for its emphasis on secret methods and strong devotion to a guru. Nevertheless, these innovations led to a renewed flurry of activity in the first half of the first millenium, and provided the foundation for the kinds of Buddhism we find in China, Tibet, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and elsewhere in east Asia.

China

Legend has it that the Chinese Emperor Ming Ti had a dream which led him to send his agents down the Silk Road -- the ancient trade route between China and the west -- to discover its meaning. The agents returned with a picture of the Buddha and a copy of the Sutra in 42 Sections. This Sutra would, in 67 ad, be the first of many to be translated into Chinese.

The first Buddhist community in China is thought to be one in Loyang, established by "foreigners" around 150 ad, in the Han dynasty. Only 100 years later, there emerges a native Chinese Sangha. And during the Period of Disunity (or Era of the Warring States, 220 to 589 ad), the number of Buddhist monks and nuns increase to as many as two million! Apparently, the uncertain times and the misery of the lower classes were fertile ground for the monastic traditions of Buddhism.

Buddhism did not come to a land innocent of religion and philosophy, of course. China, in fact, had three main competing streams of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and folk religion. Confucianisim is essentially a moral-political philosophy, involving a complex guide to human relationships. Taoism is a life-philosophy involving a return to simpler and more "natural" ways of being. And the folk religion -- or, should we say, religions -- consisted of rich mythologies, superstitions, astrology, reading of entrails, magic, folk medicine, and so on. (Please understand that I am simplifying here: Certainly Confucianism and Taoism are as sophisticated as Buddhism!)

Although these various streams sometimes competed with each other and with Buddhism, they also fed each other, enriched each other, and intertwined with each other. Over time, the Mahayana of India became the Mahayana of China and, later, of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Pure Land

The first example historically is Pure Land Buddhism (Ching-T'u, J: Jodo). The peasants and working people of China were used to gods and goddesses, praying for rain and health, worrying about heaven and hell, and so on. It wasn't a great leap to find in Buddhism's cosmology and theology the bases for a religious tradition that catered to these needs and habits, while still providing a sophisticated philosophical foundation.

The idea of this period of time as a fallen or inferior time -- traditional in China -- led to the idea that we are no longer able to reach enlightenment on our own power, but must rely on the intercession of higher beings. The transcendent Buddha Amitabha, and his western paradise ("pure land"), introduced in the Sukhavati-vyuha Sutra, was a perfect fit.

Ch'an

Another school that was to be particularly strongly influenced by Chinese thought was the Meditation School -- Dhyana, Ch'an, Son, or Zen. Tradition has the Indian monk Bodhidharma coming from the west to China around 520 ad. It was Bodhidharma, it is said, who carried the Silent Transmission to become the First Patriarch of the Ch'an School in China:

From the very beginning, Buddha had had reservations about his ability to communicate his message to the people. Words simply could not carry such a sublime message. So, on one occasion, while the monks around him waited for a sermon, he said absolutely nothing. He simply held up a flower. the monks, of course, were confused, except for Kashyapa, who understood and smiled. The Buddha smiled back, and thus the Silent Transmission began.

Zen Buddhism focuses on developing the immediate awareness of Buddha-mind through meditation on emptiness. It is notorious for its dismissal of the written and spoken word and occasionally for his rough-house antics. It should be understood, however, that there is great reverence for the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, even when they are ostensibly ignoring, poking fun, or even turning them upside-down.

Zen has contributed its own literature to the Buddhist melting-pot, including The Platform Sutra, written by Hui Neng, the Sixth Patriarch, around 700 ad., The Blue Cliff Record, written about 1000 ad., and The Gateless Gate, written about 1200 ad. And we shouldn't forget the famous Ten Ox-Herding Pictures that many see as containing the very essence of Zen's message.

The Blossoming of Schools

During the Sui dynasty (581-618) and T'ang dynasty (618-907), Chinese Buddhism experienced what is referred to as the "blossoming of schools." The philosophical inspirations of the Madhyamaka and Yogachara, as well as the Pure Land and Ch'an Sutras, interacting with the already sophisticated philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism, led to a regular renaissance in religious and philosophical thought.

We find the Realistic School, based on the "all things exist" Hinayana School; the Three-Treatises School, based on Madhyamaka; the Idealist School, based on Yogachara; the Tantric School; the Flower Adornment School (Hua-Yen, J: Kegon), which attempted to consolidate the various forms; and the White Lotus School (T'ien-T'ai, J: Tendai), which focused on the Lotus Sutra.

All the Chinese Schools had their representatives in neighboring countries. Korea was to develop its own powerful form of Ch'an called Son. Vietnam developed a form of Ch'an that incorporated aspects of Pure Land and Hinayana. But it was Japan that would have a field day with Chinese Buddhism, and pass the Mahayana traditions on to the US and the west generally.

Japan

Again, we begin with the legendary: A delegation arrived from Korea with gifts for the Emperor of Japan in 538 ad., including a bronze Buddha and various Sutras. Unfortunately a plague led the Emperor to believe that the traditional gods of Japan were annoyed, so he had the gifts thrown into a canal! But the imperial court on the 600's, in their constant effort to be as sophisticated as the courts of their distinguished neighbors, the Chinese, continued to be drawn to Buddhism.

Although starting as a religion of the upper classes, in the 900's, Pure Land entered the picture as the favorite of the peasant and working classes. And in the 1200's, Ch'an, relabeled Zen, came into Japan, where it was enthusiastically adopted by, among others, the warrior class or Samurai.

Zen was introduced into Japan by two particularly talented monks who had gone to China for their educations: Eisai (1141-1215) brought Lin-chi (J: Rinzai) Ch'an, with its koans and occasionally outrageous antics; Dogen (1200-1253) brought the more sedate Ts'ao-tung (J: Soto) Ch'an. In addition, Dogen is particularly admired for his massive treatise, the Shobogenzo.

Ch'an has always had an artistic side to it. In China and elsewhere, a certain simple, elegant style of writing and drawing developed among the monks. In Japan, this became an even more influential aspect of Zen. We have, for example, the poetry, calligraphy, and paintings of various monks -- Bankei (1622-1698), Basho (1644-1694), Hakuin (1685-1768), and Ryokan (1758-1831) -- which have become internationally beloved.

One last Japanese innovation is usually attributed to a somewhat unorthodox monk named Nichiren (1222-1282). Having been trained in the Tendai or White Lotus tradition, he came to believe that the Lotus Sutra carried all that was necessary for Buddhist life. More than that, he believed that even the name of the Sutra was enough! So he encouraged his students to chant this mantra: Namu-myoho-renge-kyo, which means "homage to the Lotus Sutra." This practice alone would ensure enlightenment in this life. In fact, he insisted, all other forms of Buddhism were of little worth. Needless to say, this was not appreciated by the Buddhist powers of the day. He spent the rest of his life in relative isolation. The Nichiren School nevertheless proved to be one of the most successful forms of Buddhism on the planet!

Tibet

Finally, let's turn out attention to the most mysterious site of Buddhism's history, Tibet. Its first encounter with Buddhism occurred in the 700's ad, when a Tantric master, Guru Rinpoché, came from India to battle the demons of Tibet for control. The demons submitted, but they remained forever a part of Tibetan Buddhism -- as its protectors!

During the 800's and 900's, Tibet went through a "dark age," during which Buddhism suffered something of a setback. But, in the 1000's, it returned in force. And in 1578, the Mongol overlords named the head of the Gelug School the Dalai Lama, meaning "guru as great as the ocean." The title was made retroactive to two earlier heads of the school. The fifth Dalai Lama is noted for bringing all of Tibet under his religious and political control.

The lineage continues down to the present 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, born 1935. In 1989, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts on behalf of his people and nation, which had been taken over by the Communist Chinese in 1951.

The West

It was in the latter half of the 1800's that Buddhism first came to be known in the west. The great European colonial empires brought the ancient cultures of India and China back to the attention of the intellectuals of Europe. Scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. Adventurers explored previously shut-off places and recorded the cultures. Religious enthusiasts enjoyed the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions.

In England, for example, societies sprang up for devotees of "orientalia," such as T. W. Rhys Davids' Pali Text Society and T. Christmas Humphreys' Buddhist Society. Books were published, such as Sir Edwin Arnold's epic poem The Light of Asia (1879). And the first western monks began to make themselves know, such as Allan Bennett, perhaps the very first, who took the name Ananda Metteya. In Germany and France as well, Buddhism was the rage.

In the United States, there was a similar flurry of interest. First of all, thousands of Chinese immigrants were coming to the west coast in the late 1800's, many to provide cheap labor for the railroads and other expanding industries. Also, on the east coast, intellectuals were reading about Buddhism in books by Europeans. One example was Henry Thoreau, who, among other things, translated a French translation of a Buddhist Sutra into English.

A renewal of interest came during World War II, during which many Asian Buddhists -- such as the Zen author D. T. Suzuki -- came to England and the U.S., and many European Buddhists -- such as the Zen author Alan Watts -- came to the U.S. As these examples suggest, Zen Buddhism was particularly popular, especially in the U.S., where it became enmeshed in the Beatnik artistic and literary movement as "beat Zen."

One by one, European and Americans who studied in Asia returned with their knowledge and founded monasteries and societies, Asian masters came to Europe and America to found monasteries, and the Asian immigrant populations from China, Japan, Vietnam and elsewhere, quietly continued their Buddhist practices.

Today, it is believed that there are more than 300 million Buddhists in the world, including at least a quarter million in Europe, and a half million each in North and South America. I say "at least" because other estimates go as high as three million in the U.S. alone! Whatever the numbers may be, Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, after Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. And, although it has suffered considerable setbacks over the centuries, it seems to be attracting more and more people, as a religion or a philosophy of life.

The Life of Gautama Buddha Siddhartha

2008-01-11T07:39:00.000-08:00

BUDDHISM

There was a small country in what is now southern Nepal that was ruled by a clan called the Shakyas. The head of this clan, and the king of this country, was named Shuddodana Gautama, and his wife was the beautiful Mahamaya. Mahamaya was expecting her first born. She had had a strange dream in which a baby elephant had blessed her with his trunk, which was understood to be a very auspicious sign to say the least.

As was the custom of the day, when the time came near for Queen Mahamaya to have her child, she traveled to her father's kingdom for the birth. But during the long journey, her birth pains began. In the small town of Lumbini, she asked her handmaidens to assist her to a nearby grove of trees for privacy. One large tree lowered a branch to her to serve as a support for her delivery. They say the birth was nearly painless, even though the child had to be delivered from her side. After, a gentle rain fell on the mother and the child to cleanse them.

It is said that the child was born fully awake. He could speak, and told his mother he had come to free all mankind from suffering. He could stand, and he walked a short distance in each of the four directions. Lotus blossoms rose in his footsteps. They named him Siddhartha, which means "he who has attained his goals." Sadly, Mahamaya died only seven days after the birth. After that Siddhartha was raised by his mother’s kind sister, Mahaprajapati.

King Shuddodana consulted Asita, a well-known sooth-sayer, concerning the future of his son. Asita proclaimed that he would be one of two things: He could become a great king, even an emperor. Or he could become a great sage and savior of humanity. The king, eager that his son should become a king like himself, was determined to shield the child from anything that might result in him taking up the religious life. And so Siddhartha was kept in one or another of their three palaces, and was prevented from experiencing much of what ordinary folk might consider quite commonplace. He was not permitted to see the elderly, the sickly, the dead, or anyone who had dedicated themselves to spiritual practices. Only beauty and health surrounded Siddhartha.

Siddhartha grew up to be a strong and handsome young man. As a prince of the warrior caste, he trained in the arts of war. When it came time for him to marry, he won the hand of a beautiful princess of a neighboring kingdom by besting all competitors at a variety of sports. Yashodhara was her name, and they married when both were 16 years old.

As Siddhartha continued living in the luxury of his palaces, he grew increasing restless and curious about the world beyond the palace walls. He finally demanded that he be permitted to see his people and his lands. The king carefully arranged that Siddhartha should still not see the kind of suffering that he feared would lead him to a religious life, and decried that only young and healthy people should greet the prince.

As he was lead through Kapilavatthu, the capital, he chanced to see a couple of old men who had accidentally wandered near the parade route. Amazed and confused, he chased after them to find out what they were. Then he came across some people who were severely ill. And finally, he came across a funeral ceremony by the side of a river, and for the first time in his life saw death. He asked his friend and squire Chandaka the meaning of all these things, and Chandaka informed him of the simple truths that Siddhartha should have known all along: That all of us get old, sick, and eventually die.

Siddhartha also saw an ascetic, a monk who had renounced all the pleasures of the flesh. The peaceful look on the monks face would stay with Siddhartha for a long time to come. Later, he would say this about that time:

When ignorant people see someone who is old, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be old some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After that, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with youth anymore.
When ignorant people see someone who is sick, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be sick some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After that, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with health anymore.

When ignorant people see someone who is dead, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be dead some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After than, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with life anymore. (AN III.39, interpreted)

At the age of 29, Siddhartha came to realize that he could not be happy living as he had been. He had discovered suffering, and wanted more than anything to discover how one might overcome suffering. After kissing his sleeping wife and newborn son Rahula goodbye, he snuck out of the palace with his squire Chandara and his favorite horse Kanthaka. He gave away his rich clothing, cut his long hair, and gave the horse to Chandara and told him to return to the palace. He studied for a while with two famous gurus of the day, but found their practices lacking.

He then began to practice the austerities and self-mortifications practiced by a group of five ascetics. For six years, he practiced. The sincerity and intensity of his practice were so astounding that, before long, the five ascetics became followers of Siddhartha. But the answers to his questions were not forthcoming. He redoubled his efforts, refusing food and water, until he was in a state of near death.

One day, a peasant girl named Sujata saw this starving monk and took pity on him. She begged him to eat some of her milk-rice. Siddhartha then realized that these extreme practices were leading him nowhere, that in fact it might be better to find some middle way between the extremes of the life of luxury and the life of self-mortification. So he ate, and drank, and bathed in the river. The five ascetics saw him and concluded that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and taken to the ways of the flesh, and left him.

In the town of Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha decided that he would sit under a certain fig tree as long as it would take for the answers to the problem of suffering to come. He sat there for many days, first in deep concentration to clear his mind of all distractions, then in mindfulness meditation, opening himself up to the truth. He began, they say, to recall all his previous lives, and to see everything that was going on in the entire universe. On the full moon of May, with the rising of the morning star, Siddhartha finally understood the answer to the question of suffering and became the Buddha, which means “he who is awake.”

It is said that Mara, the evil one, tried to prevent this great occurrence. He first tried to frighten Siddhartha with storms and armies of demons. Siddhartha remained completely calm. Then he sent his three beautiful daughters to tempt him, again to no avail. Finally, he tried to ensnare Siddhartha in his own ego by appealing to his pride. That, too, failed. Siddhartha, having conquered all temptations, touched the ground with one hand and asked the earth to be his witness.

Siddhartha, now the Buddha, remained seated under the tree -- which we call the bodhi tree -- for many days longer. It seemed to him that this knowledge he had gained was far too difficult to communicate to others. Legend has it that Brahma, king of the gods, convinced Buddha to teach, saying that some of us perhaps have only a little dirt in our eyes and could awaken if we only heard his story. Buddha agreed to teach.

At Sarnath near Benares, about one hundred miles from Bodh Gaya, he came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long. There, in a deer park, he preached his first sermon, which is called “setting the wheel of the teaching in motion.” He explained to them the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. They became his very first disciples and the beginnings of the Sangha or community of monks.

King Bimbisara of Magadha, having heard Buddha’s words, granted him a monastery near Rahagriha, his capital, for use during the rainy season. This and other generous donations permitted the community of converts to continue their practice throughout the years, and gave many more people an opportunity to hear the teachings of the Buddha.

Over time, he was approached by members of his family, including his wife, son, father, and aunt. His son became a monk and is particularly remembered in a sutra based on a conversation between father and son on the dangers of lying. His father became a lay follower. Because he was saddened by the departures of his son and grandson into the monastic life, he asked Buddha to make it a rule that a man must have the permission of his parents to become a monk. Buddha obliged him.

His aunt and wife asked to be permitted into the Sangha, which was originally composed only of men. The culture of the time ranked women far below men in importance, and at first it seemed that permitting women to enter the community would weaken it. But the Buddha relented, and his aunt and wife became the first Buddhist nuns.

The Buddha said that it didn’t matter what a person’s status in the world was, or what their background or wealth or nationality might be. All were capable of enlightenment, and all were welcome into the Sangha. The first ordained Buddhist monk, Upali, had been a barber, yet he was ranked higher than monks who had been kings, only because he had taken his vows earlier than they!

Buddha’s life wasn’t without disappointments. His cousin, Devadatta, was an ambitious man. As a convert and monk, he felt that he should have greater power in the Sangha. He managed to influence quite a few monks with a call to a return to extreme asceticism. Eventually, he conspired with a local king to have the Buddha killed and to take over the Buddhist community. Of course, he failed.

Buddha had achieved his enlightenment at the age of 35. He would teach throughout northeast India for another 45 years. When the Buddha was 80 years old, he told his friend and cousin Ananda that he would be leaving them soon. And so it came to be that in Kushinagara, not a hundred miles from his homeland, he ate some spoiled food and became very ill. He went into a deep meditation under a grove of sala trees and died. His last words were...

Impermanent are all created things;
Strive on with awareness.